World War I: Causes, Impact, and Post-War Transformations
The Outbreak of Conflict
On June 28, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. The attack was conducted by a student related to Bosnian Serb nationalist groups. Austria, accusing Serbia of being behind the bombing, decided to annex it and declared war. From there, the game of alliances between powers began, and within a week, the whole of Europe was at war. Russia sided with Serbia and declared war on Austria. Germany declared war on France and Russia. Britain declared war on Austria and Germany. Italy alone did not enter initially.
A New Type of War
This was a new kind of war, mobilizing all resources and involving the entire civilian population and military. The first use of propaganda served to mobilize public opinion on each side, using the exaltation of the country and hatred of the enemy as a way to engage the entire population in the conflict. Governments set up real war economies with strong state intervention. Factories were operating at full capacity to manufacture weapons. To finance the war, the Allied governments borrowed heavily from the U.S., the richest power of the time.
The Peace Treaties
The interests of the victors were not aligned on some issues. The U.S. President wanted to impose a peace based on law, respect for nationalities, freedom of trade, disarmament, and the construction of democracy. However, Europeans were more inclined to defend their interests. In short, those who had lost the least in the war (U.S.) were more generous in victory, and those who suffered the most (France) wanted strong compensation. The most important treaty, the Treaty of Versailles, was an imposition against Germany, holding it responsible for the conflict. The treaty returned Alsace-Lorraine to France and Posen to Poland. Germany also had to pay heavy war reparations, abolish military service, and limit its army to 100,000 men.
Population Growth and Migration
Improvements in diet, health, and medical progress made possible a new growth phase of the European population, which doubled in 100 years. Discoveries in medicine managed to stop the great epidemics in Europe. This low mortality from infectious diseases permitted an increase in life expectancy. Due to the increasing population, many were forced to emigrate from Europe. Many went to America, and Russians were established in Siberia.
New Sources of Energy
Oil and electricity were able to dethrone coal. The use of electricity lowered the price of energy, leading to increased productivity. Electricity was used in communications, transportation, lighting, and entertainment. Oil was initially used for lighting, but progress in its distillation made other uses possible. Its most important application was as fuel for transportation.
New Means of Transport
New sources of energy fueled a revolution in transportation. Electricity allowed innovations in urban transport through trams and metropolitan railways. Since the 1860s, technical improvements in shipbuilding and navigation shortened the duration of transoceanic travel. The invention of the pedal and tire made the bicycle possible, but what really revolutionized transportation was the automobile, which combined the combustion engine, tire, and oil use as fuel.
New Inventions, New Industries
The industrial drive of the late nineteenth century was linked to technological innovation. Technological progress became the result of the cooperation of a high number of experts, grouped in research laboratories. The steel industry expanded thanks to the mass production of steel and aluminum, and the metallurgical industry broadened its horizon with the automobile industry and electrical appliances. The power industry found countless applications in lighting, transport, and communications. The chemical sector was boosted by the creation of new products and the development of the pharmaceutical industry.