World War I: Causes, Key Events, and Global Impact
The Causes of World War I
Colonialism and Nationalism
Several factors contributed to the outbreak of World War I:
- Rivalry Between Colonial Powers: Clashes between rival empires, particularly in Morocco, fueled tensions. Germany, with fewer colonies, sought to challenge the established powers of France and Britain.
- Nationalist Exaltation: Germany and France harbored deep-seated animosity stemming from the Franco-Prussian War and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. Both nations vied for European dominance.
- Naval Rivalry: Germany and Britain engaged in a fierce competition for control of sea lanes and international trade.
- Balkan Conflict: The Balkans, a region long plagued by ethnic and political tensions, became a flashpoint. Austria-Hungary, a multinational empire, aimed to assert its dominance in the region, while Serbia sought to protect its interests and those of other Slavic peoples. Russia, seeking to expand its influence, supported Serbia and aimed to gain access to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.
Arms Race and Alliances
The escalating tensions led to a massive arms race, with nations investing heavily in military buildup. A complex web of military alliances further exacerbated the situation. Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, while France, Russia, and Britain entered into the Triple Entente.
The Outbreak of War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, triggered a chain reaction. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia mobilized to support Serbia, and Germany declared war on Russia and France. Britain joined the conflict after Germany invaded Belgium.
The Great War
World War I, also known as the Great War, was a protracted conflict with distinct phases.
The War of Movement
German forces launched a swift offensive through Belgium and Luxembourg, aiming for a quick victory over France. By early September 1914, they were within 40 kilometers of Paris. However, French and British troops rallied and halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. On the Eastern Front, German forces also made initial gains, but the Russians counterattacked and reached the borders of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Trench Warfare
Following the initial mobile phase, the war bogged down into a stalemate. On the Western Front, a network of trenches stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea. In 1915, Italy joined the Allied side, while Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers. The war reached a bloody stalemate.
In 1916, the Germans launched a major offensive at Verdun, but failed to break through the French lines.
The Crisis of 1917 and the End of the War
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 led to Russia’s withdrawal from the war. However, the United States, angered by the sinking of the Lusitania, entered the conflict on the Allied side. In 1918, Allied forces achieved decisive victories on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. Facing defeat, Germany signed an armistice on November 11, 1918. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, and Germany became a republic.
The War in the Trenches
Life in the trenches was horrific. Soldiers endured months of misery, facing constant bombardment, disease, and unsanitary conditions. New weapons, such as machine guns, tanks, and airplanes, were introduced, transforming the nature of warfare.
The Organization of Peace
In 1919, a peace conference convened in Paris to determine the terms of the postwar settlement. The major Allied powers—the United States, France, Britain, and Italy—dominated the proceedings.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, imposed on Germany, included harsh terms. Germany was forced to accept sole responsibility for the war and pay heavy reparations. Its military was drastically reduced, and it lost its colonial empire. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and other territories were ceded to neighboring countries. Germany viewed the treaty as a humiliating imposition.
A New Map of Europe
Other treaties reshaped the map of Europe. The Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved, giving rise to new states such as Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria. Serbia became part of the newly formed Yugoslavia. The Ottoman Empire was reduced to Turkey. Poland and Romania were enlarged as buffer states against Russia.
The League of Nations
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson championed the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization designed to prevent future wars. However, the U.S. Senate’s refusal to ratify the treaty and the absence of key powers like Germany and Italy weakened the League’s effectiveness.