World War I: Causes, Stages, and Aftermath
World War I: The Great War
Territorial Tensions
Not only the Balkans were tense. France, for its part, was confronted with Germany over the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, lost in the Franco-Prussian Conflict.
Economic Factors
Germany had burst into international markets, competing with major financial powers like France and Britain.
Propaganda and Ideology
Countries engaged in public campaigns to discredit rival states and justify military spending, highlighting the perceived danger of war.
The Spark: Assassination in Sarajevo
The immediate cause of the war was the assassination in Sarajevo of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist student.
Declaration of War
On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia, and was supported by Russia. The Triple Alliance (later abandoned by Italy) and the Triple Entente (UK, France, and Russia) clashed.
The Triple Alliance, later known as the Central Powers, was supported by Turkey and Bulgaria. The Triple Entente was supported by Belgium, Japan, Italy, Romania, Greece, and the USA. The entry of the latter country significantly changed the course of the war.
This war saw important advancements in weaponry, global involvement of colonies, and significant influence on the economies of industrialized nations and civilian populations, who were forced to take exceptional measures to support the war effort.
Stages of the War
War of Movement (1914)
The Germans attempted to invade France through Belgium, breaching its neutrality, and attacked Russia, seeking a swift victory. However, the Russian offensive and the French reaction left the German plan unfinished.
Trench Warfare (1915-1916)
Established battle fronts and defensive weapons led to the stabilization of these fronts, although there was greater mobility for the Germans in the East.
The Crisis of 1917 and the Offensives
Two events changed the course of the war: the entry of the U.S. into the conflict (1917) in favor of the Allies (Triple Entente), with its infusion of new troops, and the withdrawal of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution, which separately signed the Peace of Brest-Litovsk.
The Germans launched an attack to break the French front, whereupon the Allies unified command under General Foch, who exploited the weaknesses and achieved victory. The German armistice was signed in November 1918.
The Peace of Versailles
The war led to large demographic losses, an increased number of orphans, a female overpopulation, material losses, and profound social changes, including rural exodus and the emergence of newly rich, maladjusted, and nostalgic veterans.
A series of treaties were signed to organize the new Europe, with the Treaty of Versailles addressing the German question and the reconstruction of Europe. The great powers were divided over the treatment to be given to Germany. France represented the harder position, while the U.S. sought a solution of concord.
The French thesis prevailed, resulting in what the Germans called the “dictation of Versailles”: Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine, the Danzig corridor, Eupen, Malmedy, and Schleswig, as well as its entire colonial empire. It was ordered to pay war reparations, and its army was significantly reduced.
The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires disintegrated, and new countries emerged: Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Baltic states of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia.
The Crisis of 1911
After a rebellion in southern Morocco, France sent troops. Germany moved warships, ostensibly to protect Germans in the North African country, although its intention was to obtain territories. After abandoning its claim to Morocco, it managed the expansion of its colony in Cameroon. So this incident was settled.
Tensions in the Balkans
The Balkans were an area of great uncertainty, with different peoples, cultures, religions, and traditions coexisting, which awakened nationalist sentiment. The Turks wanted to keep their possessions despite the weakness of their empire, the Russians wanted an outlet to the Mediterranean, the Austrians pursued the control of the Balkans and Serbia, the unification of peoples slaves and Greece.
Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia fought for their independence. The fighting soon escalated, leading to demonstrations and two Balkan wars between 1912 and 1913.
Ongoing Conflicts
The causes of the war were ongoing conflicts between powers. The political climate in Europe during the first decade of the twentieth century was one of peaceful tension, driven by rivalry between powers and fighting for control of territory.
The fighting for control of territory included: