World War I: From 1917 to the Aftermath
From the Crisis of 1917 to the End of the War
In 1917, a feeling of disappointment and frustration spread. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution and the rise of the Bolsheviks to power prompted a change in the Soviet government’s situation. Russia quit the war and, in 1918, signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In 1918 came the final outcome of the conflict. On the Balkan front, the British, French, and Italians defeated the Turks, Bulgarians, and Austrians. The Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire called for an armistice, and the fighting ceased. The Czechs formed their own state, and Hungary broke its ties with Austria. On November 3rd, the Austrian Empire surrendered, and its emperor abdicated. On the Western Front, the Germans launched a series of offensives (Picardy, Flanders, and Champagne). William II abdicated on November 9, 1918; the republic was proclaimed. The First World War had ended.
Peace Treaties
U.S. President Wilson wanted to impose a peace based on law and respect for nationalities. The most important treaty was the Treaty of Versailles, which stipulated Germany’s fate. In the treaty, the German Empire surrendered Alsace and Lorraine to France, while its colonies were divided among the victorious countries. Germany was forced to pay heavy war reparations. It had to deliver the coal mines of the Saar to France, and its foreign property and merchant fleet were seized. Military service was abolished, and the union of Germany with Austria was forbidden. Other treaties, like the Treaty of Saint-Germain, saw Austria lose all Slavic territories and become a republic. By the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost its access to the sea, and part of its former territories were ceded to the new Czechoslovakia. The Treaty of Neuilly saw Bulgaria cede territory to Greece, and the Treaty of Sèvres imposed on the Turkish Empire the cession of territory to Arabs and Greeks.
The Fall of Tsarist Russia (February 1917)
February 1917 ended with a general strike that was followed by the mutiny of the military garrison in Petrograd. Across the country, groups of soviets were forming. The Duma took center stage in the crisis and, in agreement with the Petrograd Soviet, imposed a provisional government chaired by Prince Lvov.
The new government promised political reforms (freedom of opinion, press, and assembly) and social reforms (an 8-hour working day and union rights). It undertook to convene a constituent assembly to decide the political fate of Russia. A dual power began to exist: the interim government and the soviets.
The NEP: A New Economic Policy
Following the civil war and war communism, the Soviet economy of 1921 sank. The sailors of the port of Kronstadt, who had contributed to the October Revolution, rebelled. Lenin proposed a reform of the economy to improve living conditions. A new economic policy, the NEP, was introduced. It meant the implementation of a mixed economy in which a return to the market economy would coexist. The economic policy was debated in the Communist Party and strengthened the internal clash between the mixed economy and the rapid socialization of property.