World War I: Key Phases, Events, and Aftermath
World War I: Key Phases and Events
First Phase: The War of Movements (1914)
Germany aimed for a swift victory over Russia. The German General Staff devised the Schlieffen Plan, which involved attacking France through Belgium. However, the Germans were halted at the Battle of the Marne, near Paris. On the Eastern Front, the Russians were defeated at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.
Second Phase: Trench Warfare (1915-1916)
The war became a stalemate. The Germans attempted to break through Allied lines at Verdun and the Somme, resulting in massive casualties on both sides. The Allies tried to break the deadlock in the Mediterranean, German colonies, and the Middle East.
Third Phase: The Crisis of 1917
Two key events changed the course of the war:
- The Russian Revolution: A revolution occurred in Russia, and the new communist government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, withdrawing Russia from the war.
- United States Entry into the War: The U.S., initially neutral, had been supplying the Allies. After the sinking of the Lusitania, the United States declared war on Germany.
Fourth Phase: The 1918 Offensives and the End of the War
Russia’s withdrawal allowed Germany to launch a spring offensive. The Allies responded with a counter-offensive. The Central Powers, facing severe internal problems, surrendered: first Turkey, then Austria, and finally Germany, where Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, 1918.
The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference resulted in several treaties with the defeated nations:
- Treaty of Versailles (Germany)
- Treaty of Saint-Germain (Austria)
- Treaty of Trianon (Hungary)
- Treaty of Sèvres (Turkey)
- Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria)
The ideological basis for the peace settlement was Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The conference had three main objectives:
- Prevent the resurgence of Germany.
- Achieve a balance of power in Europe.
- Isolate Russia.
Territorial Changes
- Germany lost all its colonies and European territories.
- Austria-Hungary was fragmented into Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, and lost territories to Yugoslavia, Poland, and Romania.
- The Ottoman Empire became the Republic of Turkey and lost territories.
To isolate Russia:
- Poland received Austrian, German, and Russian territories, gaining access to the sea through the Danzig corridor.
- Romania received Transylvania from Austria-Hungary.
- Yugoslavia was created.
Economic and Political Consequences
Economic Shift and the Interwar Period
After World War I, economic power shifted from Britain to the United States. The readjustment of European economies was long and difficult due to war-related destruction, inflation, and unemployment.
Rise of Dictatorships
The political situation in Europe changed dramatically. Democracies were fragile, and social tensions increased. The fear of communist revolution contributed to the rise of dictatorships.
The 1929 Crisis
Overproduction: During World War I, countries focused their economies on war production, allowing other nations to take their place in the international market.
Speculation: The U.S. economy in the 1920s relied heavily on real estate and stock market speculation. Banks granted credits to companies that used the money to manipulate their accounts.
The Stock Market Crash: On “Black Thursday,” October 24, 1929, a massive sell-off of stocks triggered the collapse of the stock market, ruining investors and companies.
Consequences of the Crisis
The crisis led to a sharp increase in unemployment and bank failures. It spread globally because:
- The United States reduced imports, affecting countries that supplied raw materials.
- U.S. banks repatriated capital provided under the Dawes Plan, causing the crisis to spread to Europe.
The League of Nations convened the London Conference to encourage international cooperation to end the crisis.
Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was perceived as an imposition rather than a peace agreement. The United States did not sign the treaty because it did not respect the spirit of the Fourteen Points, leading to the U.S.’s voluntary isolation. Germany never accepted the treaty, fostering resentment and revanchism. The League of Nations was created, but its effectiveness was limited.