World War I: The Rise of Global Conflict
1. The Great Powers Before the War
1.1 The Democratic Powers
Great Britain
During the Victorian era, under the reign of Queen Victoria I, Great Britain became a powerful global force. Its political system, a liberal monarchy, was based on the alternation of power between the Conservative (Tory) and Liberal (Whig) parties. The rise of the Labour Party marked a shift in the political landscape. Electoral reforms, known as the Reform Acts, expanded suffrage, leading to near-universal male voting rights. This democratization was accompanied by advancements in education.
France
Following the fall of Napoleon III’s empire, France became a republic known as the Third French Republic. This republic featured legislative chambers and a president with limited powers. Democratization efforts included restoring civil liberties, establishing universal male suffrage, electing mayors, and legalizing trade unions. The state also promoted secularization by decreasing the Church’s social influence and establishing compulsory, secular, and free education for children aged 6 to 13. France maintained contentious relations with Germany, particularly regarding the disputed territory of Alsace-Lorraine.
1.2 The Second German Reich
Under Chancellor Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm I, the Second German Reich emerged as a powerful, authoritarian federal state. Its political system consisted of the Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the Reichstag (lower house), elected through limited suffrage. Pan-Germanism, a nationalist ideology, gained prominence. Kaiser Wilhelm II aimed to establish Germany as a dominant world power.
1.3 The Old Empires
Russia
The Russian Empire, under Tsar Nicholas II, remained an autocratic state. Its vast territory, societal delays, persistence of feudalism, and the political dominance of the landed gentry hindered progress. While Alexander II had emancipated the serfs, industrialization was late and limited. Following a revolution, Nicholas II was forced to accept land reforms and the creation of a representative assembly called the Duma.
Austria-Hungary
Under Emperor Franz Joseph, the Habsburg Empire lacked democratic institutions, with the emperor holding near-absolute power and the aristocracy dominating territorial domains. The Dual Monarchy, dominated by the German minority, granted Hungary a degree of autonomy. However, struggles among various nationalities within the empire posed a significant challenge.
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire experienced a period of decline. Throughout the 19th century, nationalist movements led to the dismemberment of its territories. Rivalry with Western powers further contributed to a sense of imperial decline.
2. The Causes of War
2.1 The Formation of International Alliances
By the early 20th century, a complex system of alliances had emerged among European nations. These alliances, which ultimately led to World War I, began under German Chancellor Bismarck. Bismarck’s aim was to maintain continental dominance by creating a central bloc and containing Germany’s enemies. France sought to isolate Germany following the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.
Bismarck negotiated the Three Emperors’ League between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Germany and Austria-Hungary also formed the Dual Alliance, while a separate, secret agreement was made with Russia. The Triple Alliance, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was later established. Facing isolation, Russia formed the Franco-Russian Agreement with France, providing mutual aid in case of German or Austrian threat.
Britain and France resolved colonial rivalries through an entente cordiale (friendly understanding). Britain also reached agreements with Russia, ending their disputes. These agreements thwarted Bismarck’s plan to isolate France. While less defined than the Triple Alliance, a Triple Entente emerged between Britain, France, and Russia, forming the future Allied powers.
2.2 Colonial Conflicts
As new colonial powers emerged in the early 20th century, conflicts flared up. Imperial rivalries, particularly between Germany and France, played out in regions like North Africa, especially Morocco. Germany sought to expand its empire. During the First Moroccan Crisis, Kaiser Wilhelm II landed in Tangier, demonstrating German ambitions. The Algeciras Conference aimed to resolve the conflict but frustrated German aspirations by establishing a French protectorate in Morocco.