World War II and Cold War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences
Key Terms
- Appeasement: Conciliatory policy pursued by Allied countries towards Fascist powers before World War II.
- Rome-Berlin Axis: Agreements between Germany and Italy before World War II, later joined by Japan.
- Anti-Comintern Pact: 1936 pact between Japan and Nazi Germany against the Communist International (Comintern), aiming to isolate the Soviet Union.
- Afrika Korps: German military force sent to North Africa in 1941 to support Italian troops against the British. Commanded by Rommel, the “Desert Fox.”
- Nuremberg Trials: Judicial processes by Allied nations to prosecute Nazi regime collaborators after World War II.
- Containment Policy: US policy to prevent Soviet expansion during the early Cold War.
- Blocs Policy: International system characterized by military alliances and shared ideologies or political/economic systems.
- Iron Curtain: Term coined by Churchill for the ideological and physical border separating Soviet-influenced Eastern Europe from Western democracies.
- Blitzkrieg: Military tactic focusing offensive force at a single point.
- Satellite Countries: Eastern European countries under Soviet hegemony during the Cold War.
- Low-Intensity Conflicts: Regional conflicts not endangering world peace but influencing bloc alignment.
1 – Causes of World War II
German Military Expansionism: Hitler disregarded the Treaty of Versailles, initiating military buildup, mandatory service, and an air force. He withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933, militarized the Rhineland in 1936, and invaded Austria and Sudetenland in 1938.
Italian Military Expansionism: Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, leading to expulsion from the League of Nations.
Japanese Military Expansionism: Japan invaded Manchuria, resulting in expulsion from the League of Nations.
Collaboration Between Fascist Powers: Germany and Italy shared ideological affinities, supported Fascists in the Spanish Civil War, and signed the Rome-Berlin Axis. Hitler also signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
Invasion of Poland: Hitler, having violated the Treaty of Versailles and secured mutual assistance pacts with Italy and Japan, invaded Poland in September 1939. France and Britain, bound by a defense alliance with Poland, declared war, initiating World War II. Germany had previously signed a secret non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, dividing Poland, Finland, and the Baltics.
2 – Development of World War II
Lightning War (Blitzkrieg): Germany rapidly conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, France, Holland, and Belgium using combined tank and aviation tactics. Alsace-Lorraine became German. France was divided into German-occupied Atlantic and Vichy France under Marshal Petain. Hitler’s attempt to invade Britain failed in the Battle of Britain. The Afrika Korps was sent to North Africa to support Italy. Germany also intervened in Greece after Italy’s failed invasion. Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941.
Europe Under Nazi Rule: Germany aimed to control Europe, incorporating territories into the Reich and establishing satellite states. Industry was reorganized for German interests, resources were seized, and forced labor was implemented. Occupation led to terror, repression, and the Holocaust, with concentration camps and systematic extermination. The Gestapo and SS enforced a regime of violence.
Allied Victory: The war turned in 1942 with USSR and US reinforcement. The Americans halted Japanese advances in the Pacific (Battle of Midway), and the British stopped the Germans in North Africa (El Alamein). Hitler’s first major defeat was at Stalingrad. The Allies launched offensives, with the Americans landing in Normandy (1944) and the Soviet Red Army advancing from the east. Japan fought on until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945) led to their surrender.
3 – Consequences of War
- Demographic losses estimated at 50 million, with the USSR, Germany, and Poland suffering the most.
- Widespread destruction of cities and infrastructure.
- Awareness of the Holocaust and atomic bomb consequences prompted reflection on human violence and cruelty.
4 – Peace Conferences
The Allies aimed to avoid the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles. The war had established the US and USSR as superpowers.
- Yalta Conference (February 1945): Stalin agreed to post-war free elections, Germany’s disarmament and division into four zones, and the creation of the UN.
- Potsdam Conference (August 1945): Defined Polish borders and punishment for Nazi leaders.
- San Francisco Conference: Finalized the UN structure.
Cold War
Concept: A model of international relations after World War II based on economic and political opposition between the US-led West and the Soviet-led communist bloc. Each bloc controlled and repressed internal dissent. The Cold War was a state of permanent tension, with critical periods between 1947-1953 and the 1980s.
Rupture of the Blocs: Marshall Plan and Partition of Germany: The Truman Doctrine (1947) denounced communist regimes in Eastern Europe and proposed American intervention. The US initiated the Marshall Plan for financial assistance to Western countries, rejected by the USSR and Eastern Europe. The Communist bloc formed Comecon and Kominfon. Germany was divided, with the West creating the Federal Republic of Germany (1948) and the USSR establishing the German Democratic Republic. The Berlin Wall was erected, symbolizing the division until 1989.
Cold War Crises
- Korean War: Divided Korea led to North Korea’s invasion of South Korea in 1950. A 1953 armistice left Korea divided, initiating a period of détente.
- Vietnam War: Divided Vietnam saw the communist North attacking the capitalist South. US intervention failed, and Vietnam was unified in 1975.
- Cuban Missile Crisis: Cuba joined the Soviet bloc, leading to the USSR placing missiles in Cuba in 1962. The US blockaded Cuba, averting a potential nuclear war.