World War II & Post-War Era: A Global Transformation

The Outbreak of World War II

The territorial expansion of totalitarian states disrupted international peace. Germany occupied Czechoslovakia and Austria, while Italy seized Abyssinia and Albania. The formation of the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) further destabilized the global order. The appeasement policies of democratic nations failed to curb totalitarian expansionism, ultimately leading to Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939. This act of aggression prompted the United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany.

Phases of the Conflict

First Phase (1939-1942)

Germany’s invasion of Poland ignited the war. Germany swiftly occupied Denmark and Norway, and defeated the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. However, Hitler’s advance was halted in the Battle of Britain. Germany then invaded Yugoslavia and Greece, gaining control of the Balkans. The war expanded to the colonies of the warring nations. The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the conflict.

Second Phase (1942-1945)

Resistance movements emerged, fighting against the occupying forces through sabotage and urban warfare. The Allies, led by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, coordinated their attacks against the Axis powers. German and Italian forces were defeated in Africa. The Battle of Stalingrad marked a turning point, leading to the liberation of Russia. The Allied landing in Normandy in 1944 facilitated the liberation of Western Europe. Russian armies advanced into Germany from the east, eventually capturing Berlin. After Hitler’s death, the Third Reich surrendered in 1945. The United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender in September 1945.

Consequences of the War

Demographic: Over 50 million people died. The Nazi genocide decimated the Jewish and Roma populations, leading to widespread displacement. Numerous migrations occurred due to the war.

Regional: Germany lost territories, which were occupied by the Russians, Americans, British, and French. Japan was also occupied by the U.S., and democratic political systems were established.

Economic: Europe was heavily in debt and devastated by bombing. The United States, largely unscathed, aided in European reconstruction through the Marshall Plan.

International: European powers declined in influence, while the U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers. Peace conferences resulted in the division of Europe into spheres of influence: Eastern and Western Europe.

The New International Order

The Allied powers met to establish a new world order and forge agreements to achieve peace. The Yalta Conference (1945) focused on war strategy and the creation of a global organization to prevent future wars. The San Francisco Conference (1945) led to the establishment of the United Nations. However, political cooperation ultimately failed, resulting in a world divided into two antagonistic blocs, dominated by the U.S. and the USSR.

The United Nations

The UN was created to replace the failed League of Nations and prevent future wars. Its objectives included maintaining peace and security, and resolving conflicts peacefully. The UN has played a significant role in international affairs, albeit with mixed results. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, aimed to prevent the recurrence of past atrocities.

UN Organization

• Security Council: 15 members, including five permanent members (U.S., France, China, United Kingdom, Russian Federation).
• General Assembly: Composed of representatives from all member countries, serving as a deliberative body.
• Secretary-General: Elected by the General Assembly, the Secretary-General implements UN decisions.
• International Court of Justice: Responsible for resolving legal disputes.
• UNHCR: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
• UNICEF: United Nations Children’s Fund.
• Trusteeship Council: Oversees UN trust territories.
• Economic and Social Council: Examines economic and social issues.
• Specialized Agencies: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), IMF (International Monetary Fund), WHO (World Health Organization), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

The Cold War

The Cold War was a state of persistent tension, without direct armed conflict, between the victorious powers. It represented a complex system of international relations and a struggle for global hegemony between the U.S. and the USSR. The world was divided into two blocs: the Western (liberal) bloc led by the U.S., and the Eastern (communist) bloc led by the USSR. The consequences included the emergence of two superpowers, a polarized military landscape (NATO and the Warsaw Pact), and an arms race.

The Bipolar System

The U.S. and the USSR sought to impose their interests and ideologies globally, attracting most countries into their respective spheres of influence. The U.S. sphere included Western Europe, South America, Australia, Japan, and parts of Asia. The USSR’s sphere, more compact, encompassed Eastern European countries, later joined by Cuba and Vietnam.

Decolonization

Causes

• Europe’s weakened state after the war.
• Contributions of colonized peoples in Africa and Asia to the war effort.
• Emergence of nationalist movements among intellectuals in the colonies.
• Support for independence from both the U.S. and the USSR.

Asia and Oceania

• Indonesia: Achieved independence from the Netherlands under President Sukarno.
• India: Peaceful resistance led by Gandhi and Jinnah resulted in the creation of India and Pakistan.
• Indochina: A protracted war against France, led by Ho Chi Minh, resulted in the independence of Cambodia, Laos, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam.

Africa

• Algeria: Gained independence from France after a long and bloody war in 1960.
• Egypt: Following the departure of the UK, the monarchy fell, and a republic was proclaimed under Nasser, who sought assistance from the USSR, leading to the Suez Crisis.
• Sub-Saharan Africa: Numerous countries gained independence between 1950 and 1960. Apartheid, a system of racial segregation, was implemented in South Africa. New states included Guinea, Gabon, Madagascar, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda.

Decolonization Continued

The Vietnam War

After gaining independence from France, Vietnam was divided into two zones: the North, ruled by Ho Chi Minh’s communist government, and the South, supported by the U.S. This division led to a violent war. Communist guerrillas sought to unify Vietnam. The U.S. intervened, sending troops and weapons. After years of fighting, President Richard Nixon withdrew U.S. troops. In 1975, the North Vietnamese army unified Vietnam under communist rule. The U.S. suffered its first major war defeat, impacting its international prestige.

The Middle East Conflict

The creation of Israel in Palestine, approved by the UN, divided the region into Jewish and Muslim areas. In 1948, the state of Israel was established. The Palestinians rejected this division, leading to numerous wars. Israeli military victories resulted in Israeli expansion and Palestinian emigration. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, was formed. The First Intifada was a spontaneous popular uprising against the Israeli military.